THE HISTORY OF IRAN

OVERVIEW

Traditionally, the history of Iran, Anatolia, to the west known as Persia in the Western world, the Bosphorus, and is known as the location of Iran as the greatest area of ​​Egypt is tied to the history of a large region of ancient India, and Darya Syr in the East, and the Persian Gulf and South during the Caucasus in the north to the Gulf and Europe from Steppe borders.

Iran's historical and urban settlements from the early Bronze Age, the Iranian Plateau to the west and the western part of BC.The also participated in the traditional ancient Near East with Elam, dating to 4000, one of the oldest continuous major civilizations in the world to house; Later, as Kish, Mannaeans and Akkadian as others with different people. Based Cyrus the Great, the Persian Empire in the first 625 BC.

The the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC) and the State of Iran, a nation united the Medes and was the first historical People.The Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, the Pharisees as the names of Persis (Persepolis) Power chair, spanning three continents, are subject to the Balkans, North Africa and central Asia. This is the largest yet, and the state was the first state in the world.

The first Persian Empire, the only civilization in the history of the Seleucid Parthian, Sasanian in 480 BC.They and territories around the world, was replaced by an estimated 49.4 million people were 112.4 million to meet accounting, more than 40% of the global population who almost 1000 series Iran years and is managed as a leading world power made Iran again. Arch-rival Roman Empire and Persia's successor, was the Byzantine Empire.

The Iranian people following the Persian Empire Iron Age begins in quantity. Media and Iranian people, classical made a very ancient Achaemenid, Parthian, Sasanian and territories.

Power, the main dimensions of a state of Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and by far and wide, confirming the invasion of Iran after the victory. Iranian national identity and has always embraced the past as a separate political and cultural entity.

Muslim conquest of Persia (633-656) at the end of Sasanian Iran and a turning point in history. Iran Islamization of the tenth century at the end of the eighteenth and dependancies and Zoroastrianism in Iran, eventually led to the later decline. However, the past achievements of the Persian civilization was destroyed, but there was so much absorbed in a new Islamic civilization and the gun.

Iran, with its ancient culture and long history of the territories, the late medieval and early modern period was particularly severe hardships. Many leaders whose invasion, the negative influence of the nomadic tribes and chiefs in this country.

Iran, a prominent again and again the power of the most important changes in the history of Islam.Functioning points on one of them Shia Islam is the state of the conversion to Iran in the Safavid dynasty, which is the state religion in Iran is .

neutral in 1501, was officially reunified on April 1, 1979, on a the Islamic Republic, the neighbor of the Ottoman Empire at this time, there was a royal arch-rival for many centuries, Iran Iranian revolution in 1979, almost without interruption since 1501, governed by an Emperor.

Smart eastern Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Iran were not Muslims (which encompassed thousands of years, this intermittently) territories in the Caucasus is of course a lot missing the first half of the 19th century, above all, its rapidly expanding and 1804-13 and 1826- among the 8-emerged in Russia following the Persian wars, neighboring rival of the Russian Empire.

PREHISTORY

1. Paleolithic

The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were behind the rest of the Neandertals more traditional dating found.There also be found in Neandertals made Kashafrud Ganj par and sites that apparently dating back to 100,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic.Mousterian stone tools, mainly in the Zagros range, and as Kobeh, Kunji, Bisitun cave, Tamtama, Warwasi, and Yafteh Cave.In 1949 was less than in central Iran on sites which the Middle Paleolithic period, to a Neanderthal in a radius of Carleton S upper Paleolithic known and Epipaleolithic times in Bisitun Cave.Evidence. Coon Kermanshah and Khorramabad, from the mountains of the Zagros and Alborz in a small number of stations and tunnels in central Iran, is known primarily.

2. Neolithic Chalcolithic 

GOLAN as early as Chogha agricultural communities, such as 8000 BC Chogha Bonut (the oldest village in Elam), along with the settlement as 10,000 BC, in the Zagros mountains around the same time and began to spread in the West Iran.Around, -known around early and an earthen vessel modeled in human and animal terracotta figurines were also produced in Ganj Dareh Tepe Sarab in the western Kermanshah province among the many artifacts and other Iran.There in more than 10,000 years old human and animal figurines also are.

Iran, the south-western part, such as Chogha (a settlement, perhaps as early Mish early as 4395 calories in BC, where it was founded), as villages and settlements in Shushan, was part of the human race and fertile lands where the majority of the first major crops grown back to 6800 BC to associations; 7,000-year-old (now on display at the University of Pennsylvania) Zagros mountains excavated Sialk Tepe jars and the like, as there are the ruins of the 7000-year-old villages with more commitment. The two main Neolithic villages of Iranian culture were Zayandeh Dareh River Ganj.

3. Bronze Age

For more information, Tepe Sialk, Jiroft culture, Elam, Kura-Araxes culture, Akkadian Empire, castanets, and Mannaeans

What parts of the Caucasus and Anatolia in modern western Iran on neighboring regions Kura-Araxes culture to spread out (3400 ā.ā.- created CA. 2000 BC), was a part of.

Iran and Susa is one of the oldest-known towns in the world. According to C14 dating is based on, is the city going into the beginning of 4395 BC, the age of civilization in Mesopotamia. After Shushan general awareness among archeologists Uruk.In its later history is that the Sumerian city of the state of an extension; Shushan was an ancient sites across the Iranian territory 4000 BC.There also dozens of Elam, the capital city of the ancient cultures that emerged from the fourth millennium BC and are about the existence of a plateau in the urban villages, the Iranian plateau from the ancient civilizations of Iran, in Kerman province of southeastern There was a culture in Jiroft.

This is one of the most heritage-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East. Archaeological excavations in Jiroft BC.There a very special animal sculptures, theorist, and is decorated with a large amount of architectural motifs 4 thousand members, has discovered a number of things. In the different materials and iconography archeologists ever seen before. Many chlorite, gray-green and are made of soft stone; Other copper, bronze, terracotta, and in fact, they are precious stones. Recent excavations at the sites of Mesopotamian inscriptions-days in advance, which produced the original inscription in the world.

There are records of the early Iron Age to the Iranian people and many others in the Iranian Plateau before the emergence of an ancient civilization. Early Bronze Age city organized in the Middle East states saw the rise of cities and writing (the Uruk period) discovery. From the Bronze Age, Elam was still writing, although he did not use birth-Elamite script remains undeciphered; Elam is scarcely more than the Sumerian records.

Russian historian Igor M. Diakonoff to the Iranian Plateau smart people, mostly non-Persian groups of seeds that says: "This Iranian plateau, but in Europe the birth autochthones are Indo-Europeans, that is, in the main, present day Iranians words, our physical sense."

3. At the beginning of the Iron Age

Iranian plateau logs will be more concrete than with the rise of Neo-Assyrian Empire Records and support provided. In the early 20th century BC, as Pontic- Caspian steppe tribes came from the Iranian Plateau. In the Iranian plateau and the coterminous with the arrival of Iranians is the only state in one area after another, and to submit Elam, Khuzestan and Elam, which forced him to take a river nearby location, the refuge.

Bahman Firuzmandi Iranians in the southern half of the plateau.By-first millennium BCE, Medes, Persians may be intermixed with Elam's people live, and the Parthians and speak to the people of Iran plateau. All the Near East until the rise of the Medes, like the rest, and sat under the Assyrian Empire. What has been integrated into Iranian Azerbaijani Urartu, now part of the first millennium BC in the first half.

MEDIEVAL IRAN

The triumph of Islam ratings

Mohammed expansion under, 622-632

The Patriarchal caliphs, 632-661 during expansion

The Umayyad caliphs, 661-750 during expansion

The Sasanian king reigned over Iran Yazdegerd III 633 at the time, Omar was under Muslims in a bloody civil war right after they invaded the country. Many Iranian princes and the king's shilling, Karen, and Khorasan after rebelling against Kanarangiyans as families, their Sasanian overlords.

Mihran two famous generals and Bahram Chōbin Shahrbaraz under Sasanian claimed the throne, although this time the Arabs in their struggle Sasanians faithful, but was later defeated by their own relatives Mihrans up Ispahbudhan house, under Farrukhzad leader who rebelled against Yazdegerd III.

Yazdegerd III area Miller 651.By 674 in the purse at Merv fled district, one of the killed, Muslims (modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan and were defeated, including parts of Transoxiana) Greater Khorasan.

Muslim Persian Zoroastrianism in Sasanian Persian Empire ended in victory eventually led to the decline. As time passes, Iranians, many converted to Islam. Most of the discarded to the previous Persian civilizations themes was, but he was shooting the new Islamic. Bernard Lewis commented that:

These events have been seen in different parts of Iran, as a blessing, some real faith in the coming of the end, in the age of ignorance and outraged; National humiliating defeat foreign invaders in the country, defeated and under the control of others. Both are based on a person's vision angle, of course, are not valid.

Caspian coast to the caliphs and realize Surah

Main article: Umayyad caliphs

After the fall of Sasanian Empire in 651, the Umayyad caliphs many Arabs and Persians practices, particularly in administrative and judicial proceedings began mannerisms. There was no doubt the Arab provincial governors Persianized either in Armenia or ethnic Persians; Indeed, the main city in Persia 692 recording Damascus began in the seventh century of Arabic at the end, until the adoption Caliph remained in business language. Sasanian coins hats have evolved new Islamic coins (and Byzantine), and the invention of the alphabet replaced the Arabic script with the Pahlavi.

The Umayyad caliphs the Arab conquerors of the state can not make a major Arabic-language peoples around the issue. Was not happy with the Persian language to bed on the prevalence of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, from past centuries, some of the remaining symbols force.In Al's silver, replaced Arabic, the official language is written orders to conquer countries, for example:

Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf was sent Khwarazmia with the Muslim military command under bin Qutaibah trip and the second time when victory was quickly Khwarazmian heritage, history and culture, and killed whomever wrote that he Khwarazmian native language. Little by little, he was writing just illiterate; As a result, their story was largely forgotten, until then it remains, after all, and the Zoroastrian priests, killed and burned and scattered books. "

There are many historians who see the «dhimmah" set up to promote the rule of the Umayyads as dhimmis taxes to make money and change the Muslim and Arab communities by despair and hope. He depriving the provinces of revenues, posted a time of laws makes it easy to convert and lodged complaints with the governors to the caliph.

Tabaristan map and neighboring territories

Many Arab and non-Islamic Persia, as they entered mawali as recognition ( "clients"), the Umayyad caliphs and the end of the ruling Arab elite, citizens were regarded as second-in 7 th century. During this time, an Arab tribe and Islam at the beginning of the mawali client state with Arab and required the adoption was associated with a formal association of ethnic identity.By the end of the non-Arab Muslims Umayyads half the heart of policies and Shias failed to stop the unrest among these minorities were tolerated.

But it was still under the control of all Arab Iran; Tabaristan Dabuyid and Paduspanid controlled Daylam while the country was under the control of the Daylamites, and Mount Damavand region under Masmughans of Damavand. Arabs invaded many times these regions; But nothing was achieved important results of terrain accessible regions. Farrukhan the Great (r 712-728) known as Dabuyids, the popular governor, who was defeated Arab armies combined Dailamite-Dabuyid General Yazid ibn al-domains managed to capture during Muhallab, in the long struggle, and Tabaristan was forced to go back.

743 in the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik's death, the Islamic world war. Abu Muslim Abbasid caliphs sent a propaganda as the beginning of Khorasan and then in rebellion against their behalf. Umayyad governor Nasr ibn victory that took Merv Sayyar. He became de facto ruler of the Abbasid caliphate in Khurasan. At the same time, the Governor Khurshid Dabuyid declared free from the Umayyads, but was forced to accept the authority of the Abbasid shortly. In 750, Abu Muslim Abbasid army defeated the Umayyads and the leader of the Zab war. Abu Muslim same year, in Damascus, the Umayyad Caliph stormed the capital city.

1. Saffarid dynasty in 900.

In the mid-10th century map of the dynasty in Iran

Major Topics: The Abbasid caliphs, Tahirid dynasty, Saffarid dynasty, Ziyarid dynasty, Samanids, Sajid dynasty, Sallarid dynasty, Ilyasids, Buyid dynasty, and Kakuyids

The Abbasid army consisted mainly Khorasanians an Iranian general, Abu Muslim, was educated Khorasani. It contained both Iranian and Arab elements, and the Abbasids enjoyed both Iranian and Arab support. Amir Arjomand Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750.According: Abbasid empire that includes the Arab revolution is basically more in the end and in the Middle East, multiethnic marked the beginning of the case.

One of the Umayyads to the Abbasids in his first action after taking over power to Iraq, Levant, Damascus, the capital city of the state was moving. Latter-range influence in the Arab Persian history and cultural impact, and the capital was part of the Persian Empire, stirring mawali interest. To serve as the new capital of the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad city, at 762, was built on the Tigris River.

One of the Abbasids, "the vice-caliph" equivalent, or second-in-command; So Barmakids in the management of their established position as vizier. Eventually, this change than ever before with the vizier in real power under the Abbasid caliphs much is entered into the system role. A new Persian bureaucracy began to replace the old Arab aristocracy; The manager of a new dynasty, demonstrating that different in many ways, with the Umayyads, reflected these changes.

The Abbasid caliphs caliphate.The regional leaders of the Abbasid empire to challenge the authority of the central square Bekele far as the 9th century, Abbasid who operate outside the control of the Mamluks began to wane, Turkic-speaking warriors, began enlisting as early as the 9th century slave warriors as central to Transoxiana Asia. Shortly thereafter, the Abbasid caliphs began to wane real power; Later, he became a fighter servitude to religious figureheads.

As the power of the Abbasid caliphs diminished, a series of dynasties in various parts of Iran and got some influence with power. These overlapping Tahirids in Khorasan of the most important dynasties (821-873) were: Saffarids in Sistani (861-1003, as of) maliks against their rule until 1537, Sistani; And Samanids (819-1005) at the beginning of Bukhara. Later, the Samanids central Iran to Pakistan would be subject to the same location.

At the beginning of the 10th century, the Abbasids almost Buyid dynasty (934-1062), known as the growing Persian faction lost control. I was also able to assume real power in the Persian quietly Buyids since there was a lot anyway Abbasid Baghdad administration. While publicly expressed their loyalty was to conquer Buyids continues to exert influence over the Abbasids, who Seljuq Turks in the mid-11th century. Name the only authority with the Abbasids - - balance of power in the city of Baghdad, the Mongol invasion in 1258, sacked and he remained exactly as the Abbasid dynasty until the end.

In a Abbassid enfranchisement was to mawali experience and a shift in the state of Muslim and was in a political conception to one of the main Arab state. 930 was enacted requirement that every state must be a Muslim bureaucrats.

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THE HISTORY OF AFGHANISTAN

OVERVIEW

Afghanistan, writing, history (Persian: تاریخ افغانستان, Tārīkh e Afġānistān), Pashto: د افغانستان area, but the Achaemenid Empire during تاريخ, de Afġānistān Tārīkh), around 500 BC traced back to the root of urban culture with a number of sites being higher degrees , BCE.The the Indus Valley Civilization many parts of northern Afghanistan from 3000 to 2000, stretched out on the ground suggests that the Macedonian army came and known.


Alexander the great Greco-Bactrians, Mauryas, Kushans, Hindu Shahi, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Timurids after the conquest of Persia in Afghanistan, including 330 BC, during the war Gaugamela.Since what is now Afghanistan, many governments have built capital, Mughals, Hotakis and Durranis.


( "Land of the Afghans") is Afghanistan history.The country .Sitting on many important strategic business throughout the region, "to the Mediterranean Sea to China, which has served as a gateway of trade was carried out" impinging, India, on the ancient silk road and migration routes, Afghanistan the "Tarim Basin in Central Asia roundabout'since routes to the far East through the Hindu Kush from the Indus valley through tickets, stream from the Middle East can be called from Europe and the Steppe.

The classical manifestation of inido- ago to divide the different language groups of Iranians (Aryans) is generally seen as the Andronovo culture in today's Afghanistan to the north. It was one of those people who populate the Iranian branch of languages; Aghanistan is one of the Pashto language eastern Iranian languages ​​spoken today. Elena E. argue that from the Iranian-speaking nomadic tents Kuz'mina Afghanistan in the light of the steppe belt in Europe in the Bronze Age site houses.


Arab invasions of Afghanistan and culture, and the influence of Zoroastrianism, Macedonia, Buddhist and Hindu past its pre-Islamic times, it disappeared for a long time. Ghaznavids and Timurids as-Turkic empire builders, as he is now called Afghanistan an area of ​​great importance.


Ahmad Shah Durrani unified ye’āfigeni Mirwais Hotak tribes and the subsequent Anglo-Afghan War CE.Afghanistan sovereignty, held in 1980 during the Soviet War in the early 18th century, the Afghans, the last government was formed, and in 2001 many of the country's war-are now different people, the Pashtuns , Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, Turkmen, Aimak, Baloch and others. The Pashtuns of ancient Israel or Qais Abdur Rashid seeds inidinek’wak’umi thing to say, but we are the largest group of scholars under the Pashtunwali a man they believe that they are already a confederation of different people.

PREHISTORY

• Badghis province in northern Afghanistan, Afghan nomads in tents. At first came into existence in Afghanistan peasant farming villages and 7,000 years ago.

• 800 stone tools and bones of a Neanderthal temporary right to recover along with the whole 1966 Darra- G. Curie, Louis Dupree in the prehistoric sites and other excavations, ancient people say that lived in what is now Afghanistan at least 52,000 years ago.

• Upper Paleolithic affecting Cara contains carbon-14 is designed in a cave 34,000 years as Kamar.Among the earliest farming communities in Afghanistan world.Archaeologists in the back as 50,000 BC to have evidence of human habitation in Afghanistan. 

• Antiques indigenous people and small local governments increased and fell with the times, perhaps too small farmers and herdsmen grouped in tribes, show that. Town early as 3000 BC Since it may be.

• Zoroastrian religion as an area predominated; Even modern Afghan shows the influence of Zoroastrianism in the solar calendar months name. Other religions, such as Buddhism and Hinduism flourished after leaving a major mark in the region. 

• Although not in the same geographic Kandahar today, and ancient Gandhara Gandhara, the Hindukush mountains and Sulaiman (Solomon since ancient yevediki located between the mountains) and the name of the capital city.

• The early inhabitants, around 3000 BC, the Indus Valley civilization and Tappeh Sialk and Jiroft as neighboring was likely to have been linked through trade with the culture and civilizations. 

• 3000 BC as the first urban civilization Since it may be, and (Kandahar near) the beginning of the city known for the first time Mundigak Iranians were inido- nearby Indus Valley Civilization.The was a colony, but some still have their day has come, according to 3000 BCE 1500 BCE It is estimated that up widely. (See Indo-minted persecution for more details.)

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CANGO AND THE SOVIET WAR

Presidential palace in Kabul Government, after a Marxist revolution on April 28, 1978, one day outside.

April 28, 1978, the day after the Marxist revolution.

27 April 1978 on, Nur Mohammed Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Amin Taha directs the PDPA, blood all military coup was executed along with his family members Mohammad Daoud, overthrew the government. Became known as the Saur Revolution to the coup. On May 1, Taraki, President, and Chief Secretary of the Prime Minister and the PDPA. Then the country Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) is labeled, and the PDPA regime until April 1992, stayed in some form or another.

In March 1979, Hafizullah Amin was Field Marshal position and retaining the Supreme Defense Council, Vice President, Prime Minister. Taraki as president and army remained in control. 14 September, Amin was killed Taraki, tables. Amin "I recognize the power of the only dry Afghans." Says Afghanistan expert, wrote Amin Saikal: "As his powers grow, so it looks like a personal dictatorship ... is a vision based on the revolutionary process of craving and terror."

Once in power, PDPA, a liberal and practical merikišišiti- Leninist agenda. Merikišišiti- moved to replace the secular and religious and cultural laws with those Leninist. Men, women could not wear a chador was required to cut their beards, and mosques were placed off limits. The PDPA, a number of reforms on women's rights and women's rights situation did voice recognition, and political life, introducing women, forced marriage ban. A famous example was the major Marxist leader and Ratebzad Anahita was a member of the Revolutionary Council. "Women's rights, it should have the rights of future generations to build healthy equal educational background, job security, health services, and free time, said Ratebzad This popular New Kabul Times editorial (May 28, 1978) wrote of teaching ... and enlightening women is now close government attention to the subject.

"The PDPA also. The USSR also usury.The PDPA economic infrastructure (predominantly a rare mineral exploration and mining, and natural gas) has invited the Soviet Union to help modernize the country prohibited moved to introduce socialist reforms being carried out and state atheism.They In addition, roads, hospitals and schools and build wells drilled ;. sent to contractors who also trained and qualified Afghan military to PDPA's ascension, and DRA to deal with, the Soviet Union at a cost of at least $ 1.262 billion in financial assistance.

At the same time: PDPA imprisoned, tortured, or the cultural elite, the religious establishment, thousands of members were killed, and some 10,000 government intelligentsia.The killing 27,000 people and 14,000 to 20,000 more arrested, launched a campaign of violence and oppression; If you usually pull-e-Charkhi prison.In important PDPA leadership in December 1978, would allow the PDPA military support in Afghanistan, which has signed an agreement with the Soviet Union.

In most cities, including Kabul were either paid or welcome to the heart of these policies. However, the government did merikišišiti- Leninist and unpopular with the majority of the population dependent on ye’āfigeni human nature and the Soviet Union. Large parts of the country, entered into open rebellion, particularly in rural areas in the new Repressions merikišišiti- Leninist government. By the spring of 1979, 24 out of 28 Afghan provinces was unrests, including major urban areas.

There ye’āfigeni between the armies of more than half, or refused to desert or join the insurrection. Most of the new government's policies approved by divided government, with one of the new religion on tribally a qualified only by the forces of the nation's population, and about the coming of the Islamic involvement in Afghan politics, clashed directly with the Afghan Islamic commonly understood.

The Iranian Revolution, followed by the US, the government sought rapprochement with camelmen - a hope for the USSR, US Ambassador Adolph "spike" Dubs was killed in the Afghan security forces after that regime.In Kabul in February 1979, more than weakening the leverage gained acceptance in the Soviet burst in and abducted him. The United States and bilateral aid is reduced and a small military training program has been terminated.

The Parcham faction enhance, the Red Army and the Soviet Union decided to intervene on December 24, 1979, when it invaded its southern neighbor. Parcham faction over 100,000 Soviet troops and 100,000 Afghan military men and another was accompanied by supporters, which took part in the invasion. Meanwhile, Hafizullah Amin was killed; Replaced Babrak Karmal.

All remaining US aid after the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan agreements ended. Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported the diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, a significant role in efforts to help refugees and refugee programs in Pakistan played the generosity of the American contribution to the Afghans.

In response to the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan in large part, Carter and Reagan administration in the United States manager Charlie Wilson and CIA officer Gust Avrakotos effort, began arming Mujahideen praise. Early reports were retrieved $ 6-20 billion in the US and Saudi Arabia but more recent reports that the United States and Saudi Arabia, two thousand FIM-92, I estimated that the cash and weapons in as close to $ 40 billion, including Stinger surface-to -āyeri missiles, building up Islamic groups against the Soviet Union. Pakistan's support for the United States handled the majority of the ISI.

The 10-year Soviet occupation of Pakistan and Iran, Afghans as refugees fled 6 million ye’āfigeni civilians.About 850,000 to 1,500,000 deaths, and more than 38,000 in the United States and the European Union also does a lot more. International pressure and both the Soviets withdrew Faced with mounting number of victims of the parties in 1989.

Through its withdrawal from Afghanistan to curb the oil-rich Persian Gulf area affected by three US presidential administrations were backed by Soviet Mujahideen some factions; This was seen as an ideological victory in the United States. The USSR until 1992, and continued to support President Mohammad Najibullah (former head of the Afghan secret service, KHAD).

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THE HISTORY OF SRI LANKA

OVERVIEW

The senior-historical Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Silappatikaram, Manimekalai and the oldest settlement on the island of documents in Culavamsa.The are based on such news in history, an estimated 4 begins in the century. These news earlier in the 6th century CE was established in Tambapanni cover from the government. The Anuradhapura Kingdom, Pandukabhaya first Sri governor, in the 4th century BCE Is recorded.

 Buddhism Arhath Mahinda (Indian emperor Ashoka the Great's son) was preached before the 3rd century BCE. The Anuradhapura Kingdom, Elara, the first invader Tamil governor, in the 2nd century BC Is recorded.

Island under the rule of the Chola (993-1077 CE of) intermittently, following centuries past was divided into a number of governments. Anuradhapura Kandy in Sri Lanka to more than 181 events to the monarchy.In the 16 th century, some areas of the coast of the country, the Portuguese, Dutch and the British had control. 

1597 and 1658 between, a great part of the island was under Portuguese rule. Portuguese in Ceylon, the Dutch lost their homes due to interference in the eighty-year-old war. Following the wars of 1848 and 1818 Uva Rebellion British Kandyan took place in Matale violence, the issue of weapons of 1815. The island was united under British rule disruption. Finally, in 1948, was given independence, but remained in the country until 1972, Dominion British Empire.

In 1972, the situation in Sri Lanka is considered a republic. A constitutional president of the executive head of state made in 1978, was launched. The civil war in Sri 2009, ending a 25-year-long civil war with armed youths in the 1987-1989 uprising, including, began in 1983.

PREHISTORY

Balangoda Man in Sri Lanka is on the site of the colony. Balangoda Man arrived on the island about 34,000 years ago, and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers who lived in a cave that has been identified. Batadombalena the most popular and FA-Hien Rock these caves, including a cave, several, currently the first known inhabitants of the island, they found a number of artifacts.

Balangoda Man probably in the central hills, the trees next to catch a game, created Horton Plains. However, more than 15,000 BC suggests that in developed on the first day of oats and barley have already been discovered in the field of agriculture.

Many flint tools minute (about 4 centimeters in length), pottery, calories burned since the Mesolithic burial pots and clay, wood, cut on the stones. In 6000 BC, dating to the human body Varana old Maha vihara and were found during excavations in the latest round in a cave Kalatuwawa area.

Cinnamon is native Sri Lanka, Egypt and the inhabitants of the island at the beginning of the business mean that as early as 1500 BC, was found in ancient Egypt. This biblical Tarshish is almost located on the island. James Emerson Tennent Galle Tarshish.

At the beginning of the Iron Age to the protohistoric, if not earlier (;: 734 Deraniyagala 1992 Possehl 1990) 1200 BC seems to be established as early as himself, at least in South India. Sri Lanka Radiocarbon this early date is a profile-a. In Anuradhapura and Sigiriya Aligala shelter in 1000-800 BC (:;: 58; Mogren 1994: 

Karunaratne and Adikari 1994 709-29 Deraniyagala 1992 39; Coningham 1999 corroborated with the Anuradhapura dating). This further investigations will push back into the bottom border of South India, Sri match that is likely the most extensive.

Sri Lanka in the early Iron Age archaeological evidence for a large city-settlement 900 BC, where the rock is located at Anuradhapura,. Toll was 15 hectares in 900 BC, but in 700 BC has been discovered near Sigiriya Aligala in the same period was increased from 50 hectares.A the same site.

Now the island, Uva and North Central and eastern parts of the Wanniyala in-Aetto or Veddas known ādenyi- gatherer people, it's probably the first inhabitants, Balangoda man are the direct descendants. They may have migrated to the island from land around the spread of the sons of Africa and India. 

500 CE environment before birth, Sri Lankans developed a unique hydraulic civilization. Achievements architecture (Sinhalese in Dāgaba) to the ancient world's largest reservoirs and dams, as well as the construction of a huge pyramid-like and include Stupa. Sri culture may be the introduction of Buddhism at the beginning of this chapter.

The ancient Buddhist scriptures recorded in the history of the mythical Naga Kings, will take on human form, we can see snakes on the island, refers to three visits to the Buddha.

They live on the island from ancient news, and Dipavamsa to the Mahavamsa, (demon worshipers) Yakkhas, Nagas (cobra worshipers) and Devas (the migration of the inhabitants of the island before the tribes among the worshipers of God Vijaya).

ANCIENT SRI LANKA

1. Anuradhapura era (377 BC-1017)

Signs of the hill and the elephant, Pandyas, Sri Lanka, 1st century CE, the Temple of the Church that the government Pandyan cents.

In the kingdom of Anuradhapura for the first time, the economy was based on agriculture at the beginning of the year round, mainly agricultural settlement, with the north-central importance of water, the rivers to the east, and north-east regions. The king and ruler of the law, the army, and was the responsibility of being a guardian. Devanampiya Tissa (250-210 BC) and was friends with the king of Maurya Sinhalese ethnic group. 

Mahinda around before the birth of Christ with Emperor Asoka has 247 links on the promotion of Buddhism (Asoka's son). Sangamitta (Mahinda's sister) Jambukolapattana (Sambiliturei) brought the sapling Bodhi tree seedlings. This was an important Theravada Buddhism and became the king of Sri Lanka.

Elara (205-161 BC) in Sri Lanka after killing the capital of the King (North mahaweli) "Pihiti Rata" ruled by a Tamil king. Elara times during the Kelani Tissa (south-west), a sub-screen Rata was king and Kavan Tissa (South-East) Ruhuna, a regional sub-king. Kavan Tissa Tissa Maha Vihara, Dighavapi barrels and built many temples in Seruvila.

 Dutugemunu (161-137 BC), the first son of King Kavan Tissa, 25 years old in a single battle (over 64 years), described in the Mahavamsa victory in South Indian Tamil invading Elara. Dutugemunu designed Ruwanwelisaya, pyramid-like dimensions is a dagaba was considered an engineering marvel.

Following the example of brass on a Roman coin, Sri Lanka, 4-8th century CE.

Pulahatta (or Pulahatha), the first five Dravidians, Bahiya on down. He, in turn, were killed in 88 BC Dathika Pilaya Mara, Mara was deposed by Panaya down. Mara was completed Tamil rule Valagamba I (89-77 BC) on down. The Mahavihara Theravada Abhayagiri ( "piro- Mahayana") doctrinal disputes arose. It was written in the Pali Tripitaka Aluvihara, Matale.

 Rays Naga (63-51 BC), a Mahanagan, were badly affected by the queen, Queen Anula. Queen Anula (48-44 BC), Chora Naga and Kuda Tissa widow, Sri Lanka was the first queen. She was poisoned and killed Kuttakanna Tissa had many lovers. The Vasabha Vallipuram on a golden bowl (67-111 AD) ,, Anuradhapura built fortified twelve tanks and a number of edicts calling. Gajabahu I (114-136) in the Chola kingdom and brought the captives, and recovering Regarding the Buddhist invaded and teeth.

A classic Sangam period, Manimekalai, Killivalavan, and this union was born a king of the Chola Valai Pilli (Pilivalai) Manipallava named a liaison between the Naga daughter of the king, a prince, injured in the first Pallava king, who attributes the origin of the ship and shoot off (pallava) Cephalandra Indica (Tondai) have been found around the hip and was named man of this Tondai-. Another version of "Pallava" had "Ashvatthama King was born from a Pallava" he says, which he says was born Ashvatthama Brahmin with a Naga princess Bahur depends on the number of plates in the sixth Union.

4th-century Roman coins Sri hats, 4-8th century.

The ancient Tamil country (southern India today) and after a large fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman trade with Sri Lanka and lived for a long time to deal with this trade settlement, it was.

Mahasena (274-301) in the Theravada (Maha Vihara) during the persecution of Buddhism and was shown Mahayanan branch. Later, they returned to the king Maha Vihara. 700 provide space wallpaper (429) ending with Pithya in Pandu Dhatusena 455., was the first of seven Pandiyan rulers (459-477) "Kalaweva" and his son Kashyapa (477-495), a famous rock sigiriya built palace; Hint ancient Sinhalese.

SRI LANKA (1948-now)

1. Dominion

• The upper ranks of the armed forces at the beginning of the British dominion and power, status, followed in February 1948 with a military agreement with Britain and British air and sea bases 4 are left intact. 

• This time has been free on his own; Sri Lanka Senanayake became the first Prime Minister. In 1949, the Ceylon Tamils, Sinhalese Kandyan leaders felt had to pay for, and support the demographic threat to the UNP government with the concurrence of the Indian Tamil plantation to workers.

• This Senanayake; The price was disenfranchised the 'Kandyan leaders to include in the Indian Tamils, "Where would mean electoral defeat root tea.Senanayke a horse fell in 1952, was buried after his son Dudley Senanayake, replaced the minister of agriculture at the time.

•  A huge Hartal Left parties in 1953, the UNP ( "general strike") the following sequestered.John Kotelawala, a senior politician and Dudley Senanayke was followed by an uncle. By policies that conflict with the Tamils ​​and the Sinhalese antagonizing Kotelawala, E great personal fame or adroit political acumen Down Senanayake.

• He the fore the issue was kept under DS Senanayake adroitly turns to the side would have brought the issue of national languages, Sinhala and Tamil as official languages ​​status it is. Bandaranaike's supporters were also Buddhist lobby by attacking politically active Buddhist monks antagonized.

• In 1956, the Senate wall Sinhala and Tamil as a second language, was established as a national language. It was abolished privy counsel appealed to the Judicial Committee of the strike was in London to carry out a Marxist program and election pledges "to protect companies from the owner's investment in the processing trick" to nationalized.

• In 1956, Sinhala only Act came creature. This is the first established in the business and education and to the Sinhala language as your preferred language. The law took effect immediately. As a result, countless people burghers often felt discriminated against as they expect to live in the country and went abroad.

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THE HISTORY OF BELGIUM

OVERVIEW

The Netherlands, Germany, France and Luxembourg, Belgium, the Kingdom of the founding of the modern history of this name is quoted in Belgium's history is intertwined with its neighbors 1830.. Most prominent among them history, for example, is now Belgium, as the Carolingian Empire as part of a larger range, or was, or small kingdoms of the Duchy of Brabant will be divided into several, County of Flanders, Prince of Liège and Luxembourg -Bishopric in the County. 

Due to its strategic location and from the fighting army, Belgium Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in the soil, often called "Europe in the field" or "cockpit of Europe." It also contains interesting as it is, and Latin-French, German and Dutch language of the border, divided by the population of Europe.

Belgium's formation, its neighbors such as Benelux, in the Burgundian Netherlands, "Prime Seventeen" and return to it later. They were brought together under the Valois- Burgundy, France and Germany and later declared independent of both the offspring of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1549. 

obligations of the agreement in the eighty years war (1568-1648), was taken to the North Dutch Republic, and Belgium Luxembourg, and it is from the southern division of the Netherlands. This southern region of "Spanish Netherlands" as the first, Burgundian house of Habsburg descendants continued to rule. Finally, the rest of the "Austrian Netherlands" and he has nothing to lose invasion of France under Louis XIV, now France's Nord-Pas-de-Calais. French Revolutionary Wars was the property of the Catholic Church and locations, bringing the end of the semi-freedom, 1795 as part of France led him to Belgium.

 In 1814, after the victory over France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, a new, later created three modern nations, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg and giving, is broken down during the 1830-1839 one more time, the Belgian revolution.

Belgium's ports and textile industry returns are important to the medieval, and modern-day Belgium in the 19th century brought in the prosperity of socialist workers and merchants, not liberal political pluralism opened an industrial revolution, was one of the first countries to experience.

 The king was isolated but stopped passing as a strategic location to France in 1914 and Germany in 1940 for an invasion targeting the government's own private colony in the Belgian Congo, took over in 1908 after a major scandal in Belgium. Under the circumstances, it was difficult to control. After the war, in what has become a founding member of the European Union, Belgium, was the leader in the European Union. 

NATO headquarters in Brussels now is host to the European Union and the de facto capital. To colonies became independent in the early 1960's.

The country was divided into a religious and political issues; In recent decades, it faced a new language differences and equal distribution of economic growth. This is due to an ongoing hatred of the federal state unitary Belgian state into changing already, since 1970, by far the vast reforms, and the government has repeated crises. 

Now, in the middle of the south, north of Brussels, two, three regions, Flanders (Dutch-speaking), Wallonia (French-speaking) is divided. Along the border with Germany, there is also the German-speaking population, and is the third official language in Belgium and Germany. It is included in a prosperous economy, and Europe.

PREHISTORY

Belgian flint knives found in a cave

On Belgian territory had looked at Engis in the Neanderthal fossils in 1829-30; Some of BC back at least 100,000 BCE published.

Northern Europe, called LBK culture, the earliest Neolithic origin of agricultural technology in South East and Eastern Europe have reached the far western stretch from Belgium. The expansion area before 5000 BC stopped in the Hesbaye region in eastern Belgium. Belgium LBK villages around it may be necessary because of the proximity of the hunter-gatherers of a protective wall, or what is known in his own interests.

So-called Limburg pottery and clay Hoguette southwest France and in the Netherlands, which are open to the metaphors, but sometimes silent, that these technologies and the first in eastern Belgium LBK people over the result of expanding agricultural technology and clay in northeastern France, and slightly Neolithic in the Middle Wallonia after-called culture may represent an offshoot from the LBK settlement is being done through the Savior gatherers.A "Groupe de Blicquy" is. Neolithic flint mines is a well-known archaeological site in Spiennes in this region.

However, agriculture in Belgium at the beginning of the arrest could not be fixed. The LBK Blicquy cultures and new farming culture disappeared long ago, the gap is to Michelsberg culture; Appeared and became widespread. It looks like the savior of drawers to the Swifterbant culture left in the sandy northern Belgium, but it seems more and more influenced by farming and pottery technology.

The third and fourth century BC, at the end of In Flanders, the entire human habitation relatively little evidence. This continuous human presence was felt that, although the evidence is very difficult.The types linisheresheru- Oise-Marne culture is associated with the distribution of the Ardennes to make a list of the judgment, and (for example, Wéris b) there megalithic sites; But they were scattered all over Belgium. To the north and east of the Netherlands, a semi-sedentary group was drawn to the idea of ​​culture; Perhaps above Swifterbant and Michelsburg cultures.

The similar examples from this so-called Vlaardingen- Wartburg Evensen complex, the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age continues on to. The Neolithic in the last part of the evidence, the Netherlands, South corded ware and Bell Beaker cultures were found, but these cultures do not seem profound effect on all of Belgium.

Belgium has a population began to increase in the late Bronze Age than to permanently before the birth of Christ in 1750. 

Three related European cultures have arrived in chronological order. First, we arrived Urnfield culture (for example, tumuli are available at Ravels and Hamont-Achel in the Campine). Then, the Iron Age, the Hallstatt culture, and culture is to bring Tène. Especially Celtic languages, especially for Tène material culture to be, and all of these are associated with being associated with the Halstatt three, Indo-European languages. This is due to the locations where Greek and Roman historic records show bookmark this culture Celtic placenames and personal names.

However, this Hallstatt, especially in the northern areas and Tène cultures may be new elites were brought in Belgium, and the Celtic people was not the main language. 500 BC Celtic tribes trade with the Mediterranean world and live in the region. From c. 150 BC, the first coins under the influence of trade with the Mediterranean, was used.

FRENCH CONTROL

• French troops during the revolutionary wars against Belgium in Fleurus, 1794French Revolutionary War in 1794, following the campaigns, Belgium Austriacum Habsburg rule to finish, 1795 was increased invaded France.

• Belgium is divided into nine départements unity has become an integral part of France. The bishop said Liège was dissolved. In the region was split on the départements Meuse-Inférieure and Ourte. 

• Austria, in 1797, by agreement between Campo Formio, the gas is only part of the Austrian Empire Austriacum Belgium, confirmed the loss.

• All the French and imposing new reforms to France Liege "Austrian Netherlands" and the diocese that includes, Belgium, 1794-1814 invaded and controlled.

• New buyers were sent in Paris by. Belgian people are heavily taxed drafted in the French wars. Almost everybody was Catholic, but the Church was oppressed.

• French and Belgian national rule was strong in resisting the emergence of resistance, as all sectors. French legal system, however, with its equal legal rights, abolition was adopted, and class distinctions. Belgium is now a good selection of government bureaucracy; But that was not all.

• 1799 was higher against the oppression of Catholics to resist the French Consulate. University of Leuven, the first was opened in 1797 and was plundered churches. 

• Taxes in France who bought goods were paid with worthless assignats had to be paid in gold and silver coins as French rule during this first: 

• Belgium was completely paralyzed economy. During this systematic exploitation, 800,000 Belgian French invasion of South Netherlands.

• The path as the administrative language in Belgium and across the country, including the suppression of the Dutch language, has fled.

• The principle of "one nation, one language", with the French public life and the economy, it is only on political and social issues and acceptable language.

• French army recruits to 1798, a series of giant steps, particularly the French government and farmers to farmers, especially in the war between the brutal suppression of War.

• The 'in the Flemish regions where it sparked, were accepted by all modern-day marks the beginning of Flemish movement.In 1814, the Allies drove Napoleon ended French rule.

•  Belgium and the Netherlands, the Dutch controlled the plan, were to join. Napoleon briefly returned to power in 1815 in a hundred days, but was decisively defeated in the south of Brussels, Waterloo.

ECONOMICS

The Musée d 'Art Ancien, Brussels in the Belgian revolution of 1830 people, Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834), episode

Main article: Belgian Revolution

Monnaie opera house in Brussels for Auber's Muette de Portici for a performance in agitating the people, patriotic spilled out into the streets singing songs by the Belgian revolution rose in August 1830. Anarchy reigned in Brussels, violent fights broke out soon. 

At first, the liberal bourgeoisie were at the forefront of the revolution, was appalled by the violence and the willingness to accept risk with the Dutch.

The revolution got a number of reasons. On a political level, the highest level in the Netherlands, Belgium felt-represented in "Prince, Brussels unacceptable in the bottom of the elected assembly and a representative of Orange, King William I, William II disliked the future. French-speaking Walloons and Dutch-speaking majority also felt ostracized in the country.

 Dutch Protestants in a nation controlled by the Belgian Catholic majority felt there were significant religious complaints.

Thought the king would blow itself in protest. Unless he is a foreigner and the leaders of all revolutionaries for mercy, proclaiming, was looking for a hand. This effort was not successful, he sent in the army. Dutch forces were able to penetrate the Brussels Schaerbeek door, but was abandoned in the Parc de Bruxelles under sniper fire and ice. 

I met with opposition from the determination of the revolutionaries obstacles remain compromised by the royal troops. This time, when more than 6,000 Dutch soldiers in Brussels (for "undisciplined rabble," described as the French ambassador) is estimated to be no more than 1,700 were revolutionaries. However, faced with strong opposition, the Dutch troops landed three days after the order was outside the capital on the evening of September 26. Dutch forces in the struggle with the conflict, there were revolutionaries around the country. In Antwerp, eight Dutch warships revolutionary forces following the capture of the city to stay.

Belgian freedom was allowed by Congress in Vienna 1815; But the revolutionaries of the major European powers, especially Britain were tenderness in sympathetically. In November 1830, the 1830 conference in London, or "Belgian Congress" (Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria with delegates from Muslims) a statement in November ordered the British and French Armistice on November 4 at the end of - any kind of military intervention and interference in Belgium a separate government - William I. absolutist rule, said the military intervention in favor of the other three participants to be more conservative, and was rejected,

20 January 1831 signed a protocol on Belgium, said the new government would be formed in regions that property in the north of Foreign Affairs in 1790. He was required to enter. British Foreign Secretary was to maintain the link between the Royal Netherlands as the new king and the new government, Lord Palmerston, which strongly backed the Prince of Orange County election. Prince William want a clear break with the Netherlands, I, his father, and the French proved to be acceptable. Finally, Palmerston second choice, Saxe- Coburg came with the Leopold I - all.

On July 21, 1831, the first "King was approved - Princess of Wales' widower of Charlotte, and the British constitutional model, an admirer of the Belgian" was inaugurated. 21 July 1831 - - is a sign of acceptance of the Constitution Day, a national holiday.

First, the revolution in the balance accused in the liberal bourgeoisie, hastily officially on October 4, declaring the freedom of the Belgian, Dutch and negotiate with Charles Rogier under a provisional government was established in 1830. 

The Belgian National Congress was formed out of a constitution. According to the new constitution, Belgium's royal sovereignty with the constitution, they have become independent Kingdom. Most of the French language, however, there was no place in the Constitution of the country so badly, would restrict the right to vote in the French-speaking bourgeoisie and the clergy yeperišini-. The Catholic Church interference-free status would be a good role model.

Another eight years of war with the Netherlands, but in 1839, the London agreement signed between the two countries. By agreement in 1839, Luxembourg, Belgium to join, but had remained in the possession of the Netherlands because of the different inheritance laws as a separate independent Duchy. This was due to the historical claim on which four regions: East, Belgium and Limburg, Zeeuws Vlaanderen and French Flanders and lost Eupen.

 Louis XIV, when he was French Flanders, French, while two remained in the possession of the former Netherlands retain, they are retained, and compensation had to go to Belgium after World War II, even though Eupen, left Germany in the CAF.

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HISTORY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM

OVERVIEW

Diversity sovereignty in England and in the United Kingdom of Great Britain as the history of the unity government in the state of Scotland, governments began 1707 with a political union. Simon Schama's story ends on an extremely powerful and full partnership in the critical state of the world, said this new "hate integration means that what began as ... This was one of the most dramatic in European history." One more Irish government to create a law that has been added to the EU in 1800, Ireland, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom.

In the first decades of 1746. In 1763 ended with the defeat at Culloden Jacobite risings because Stuart was a sign; Seven years of war, the victory was, however, a major international force which threatened to be the rule of the British Empire, due to become the largest empire in history and centuries. As a result, the United Kingdom, and industrial, political, constitutional, education, culture and language influence, and around the world.

In 1922, the Anglo-Irish Agreement of Biafra to be followed by most of the Irish Free State Ireland; After one day, they returned to the free state of Biafra in Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom. As a result, in 1927 the United Kingdom "the United Kingdom" or "E UK" the United Kingdom to "Great Britain and Northern Ireland," often "Britain" shorter, and (after 1945) with the formal title has been changed.

The Soviet Union, China and the US National Allied forces in World War II as Britain joined in, and the State of Great Britain, Germany, Italy and Japan fought a successful war against. And the high cost of maintaining Britain had an empire anymore; So much of this territory gave to independence. The new territories, especially in the United Kingdom joined the Nations.The has been trying to become a leading member of the Commonwealth, the United Nations, the European Union and NATO. In the 1990s, however, this constantly evolving political unity and unity in the large-scale ground-level activity A question of devolution of Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland.

HISTORY

Kingdom of Great Britain because the British government (including Wales) and Scotland political union, came on May 1, 1707. Terms of trade were laid out in last year's negotiations, and the union agreement. Scotland and England, parliaments and each die on the death of Elizabeth, James VI of Scotland when he began to different states, England and Scotland, James, also shared a monarch since 1603, was Union.ally in an event known as the Union of the Crowns ratified the agreement through their respective Acts England, and I will. 

Slightly more than one-hundred years later, Union of Great Britain, the two parliaments merging in Parliament, the government combined into a single two governments is enabled. Queen Anne was the unity of the ruling, it was the first king of a deeper political integration between the two governments favor and Great Britain. In Scotland, the first time the death of Anne, and second, the right to an independent and then invaded England to a different emperor relinquished the right to vote on cooperation with European power could be used as the basis for the unity of England, Scotland and safety was important.

Union agreed on the terms of the agreement, but now a kingdom, some aspects of the former independent states, remained the same. Scotland, the Presbyterian Church and the Anglican Church of England, Scotland and England as the law remained separate. England and Scotland have continued each school has its own system.

1702 William III of Great Britain, the only creature in the series before his death happened during the war in the Spanish Grand Alliance was re-activated in France. His successor, Anne, continued the war. Duke of Marlborough from a hundred years of war on the continent, won a series of brilliant victories over France, England, the first major success in the field. Louis XIV, the French people about the King of France has invited a discouraging 1709, brought in its knees. After that, we were able to change his general Marshal Villars in France's favor. One more peace-minded government came to power in Great Britain, 1713-1714 and ended in terms of Utrecht and Rastadt.

1. Hanoverian kings

• Ke’ošeyiriši Kneller George I in 1714,Queen Anne died in 1714, at the Hanover alternative, Louis George, George I (1714-1727) and as king. 

• King makes him more attention to each other in Hanover, surrounded himself with Germans; But he shook remained in the army was created to build a stable political system in Britain and Stuart helped bring peace to Northern Europe.

• Jacobite search for a strong reform factions; They instigated a rebellion in 1715-1716. James II's son, had planned invasion of England; But before he can do this, John Erskine, Earl of March, was easily defeated Scotland invasion began.

• George II (1727-1760) and strengthening the Caribbean colonies in North America, 1730-42.He first built during the British Empire, Sir Robert Walpole held with the government, the constitutional system has been upgraded to stable. 

• Increasing the power of France's victory in the seven-year war (1756-1763) in combination with Prussia, and Canada won full control.

• George III 1760-1820 reigned; Hanover was born in Britain, as he has never visited first language is English. American War of Independence and repeated a dictator reviled by Americans as the instigator, he is the eldest son of the last king of government and politics dominate regent.

• The used for a long time after 1788, as it is known in France as the American Revolutionary War and the loss of empire was lost in the mad (1783) in for the first time with the damage the British Empire, by aiding the Americans were seeking vengeance defeat in the seven-year war.

• The government of India, in Africa, Asia, British industrial revolution and economic powerhouse his second start on the state it was known buildings, and French French Revolutionary Wars and all the life and death struggle over 1793- 1802, A Short Shooting and cough, and the vital attitude bemeyelik’i the victory over Napoléon Napoleonic wars (1803-1815), ends.

NAPOLEONIC WARS

Main article: Napoleonic Wars in the United Kingdom

Second Coalition (1799-1801) War, Britain and France since most of the Dutch colonies (the Netherlands, France, 1796 was a satellite) hold, but tropical diseases, more than 40,000 soldiers lost their lives. After the war, Amiens treaty, Britain was forced to return the majority of the colony. Shooting was only on the outcome of the peace settlement, Napoleon trying to trade sanctions and the German city of Hanover (the British crown as a fief) continued to stir up by the British occupying forces in the country. 

On May 1803, and declared war. Britain failed because of the inferiority of the Navy plans to invade Napoleon, and in 1805, Lord Nelson's fleet decisively Napoleonic wars to the highest step on the coast of Trafalgar against the French and Spanish, victory.

Trafalgar off to war (completely dismasted) Bucentaure major French to the British HMS Sandwich fires. The Bucentaure also (behind her) HMS Victory and HMS Temeraire (on the left) striking picture. In fact, this sandwich HMS August Mayer, it is an error to the artist, has never fought at Trafalgar Square.

Minor naval actions a large number of naval and colonial conflicts, a series of French Revolutionary wars, including those of the European war, and like in the past. Conflict in the Caribbean, and may have some effect on the war, especially a conflict that could endanger the entire European colonial bases and islands. On can talk to Napoleonic history, an ongoing conflict "World War II was at the point. Only offered to serve as a widespread conflict on such a level of seven years of war.

In 1806, Napoleon result of the Continental system brought to Berlin Decrees, issued a series. This policy has its own business to French-controlled territory close aimed to undermine Britain's export economy. British forces remained low risk to France; The Napoleonic wars, if necessary, in the height of Britain's standing army of only 220,000 were scarcely one million people Napoleon's military draft, in addition to many supporters of the guardsmen and hosts several hundred thousand can be compared with the national army in France. 

The power of the Royal Navy, the French more effectively in both attack-regional trade-; Although intimidation and French shipping and French colonies disrupted found that the main asset-continent do business with France's economy may create a threat to French territory in Europe. In addition, the French population and agricultural capacity outstripped that of Britain.

Many had believed that the French government in the continent of Europe, Britain's economic impact on the isolation and exclusion upgrade. To achieve this, although French by continental system has never succeeded in its purpose. Britain possessed the capacity to trade through the great industry and its rapidly growing mastery of the sea and its new government property in Europe has allowed to build economic strength. British naval supremacy will not be able to establish peace necessary to strengthen the control on France, Europe, and could be a threat to the home islands and the main British colony.

Britain allowed him to gain a foothold in the Spanish rebellion to the continent in the last in 1808. Napoleon to the Prussians, was driven by the Austrians and Russians in the east of England and the Duke of Wellington as the Portuguese and his army gradually, Spain, France pushed out at the beginning of 1814, the invasion of southern France in Wellington. After Napoleon from exile in Elba Island and surrender, peace, appeared to have returned; But he escaped back to 1815, when France, Britain and their allies had to fight him again. Von Blucher and Wellington, Napoleon's army conquered all at once and Waterloo.

THE BRITISH EMPIRE

Francis Hayman, Lord Clive at Plassey meeting with war, after Mir Jafar (c. 1762).

1756 began on a seven-year war, the first war, waged on a global scale; Europe, India, North America, the Caribbean, had fought in the Philippines shores of Africa. (1763) Paris agreement signed by Britain and the Empire had important consequences. In North America, a colonial power as France and Spain to Britain in the future success of the new French ceding (British-controlled E if, between the French-speaking population left) and ended with Louisiana. Spain, Britain lek’ek’echi to Florida. 

War Carnatic effective control of British India into India in the future, leaving its communities, but was still left with an obligation to support France and the British military restrictions client Nations. Seven-year-old British victory over France in the war so great colonial power Britain that left in the world.

In the 1760s and 1770s during the thirteen colonies and the relationship between the primary reason for the American Revolutionary War in 1775 turned consent.Disagreement attack began their opposition to tax the American colonies of the British Parliament on repeated attempts, it was becoming strained. In 1776 the United States declared independence Patriots royal officials were expelled from the United States. British army after a 1777 invasion, the US military out of balance, (France, Spain, in turn aided) evening an alliance with France. Only a handful of the British army, control of the coastal cities.

1780-81 was a low point for Britain. Taxes and deficits and government corruption, were highly extended, and the United States had no clear end in sight with which he entered the sixth year of the war. The Gordon riots in parliament increased between Catholics response, echoed the spring of 1781 in London. Lord Cornwallis Yorktown, Virginia, surrendered his army in October 1781. Paris agreement officially recognizing war era and the freedom of the United States, signed in 1783.

British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga by John Trumbull 1822 (1777), the Aga Credit

At thirteen colonies off, the most populous British colonies, the "first" and "second" Nations, Britain marked the transition between the focus shifted to Asia, the Pacific and later to Africa. In 1776 Adam Smith published the governments of wealth, arguing it was too colonial past; Free trade protectionism in love with Spain and Portugal, should replace the old mercantilist policies that had been characteristic of the first period of colonial expansion.

 After 1783, newly independent United States Smith confirmed the view that it is not necessary to achieve the economic growth of the business and political control of Britain.

Work in the past 100 years, the British East India company is not interested in building an empire in India, it was business. The Mughal Empire in the 18th century as a region to the business needs of the company and turned over power declined in the 1740s and 1750s, and the British East India Company during the wars against the French counterpart, Carnatic, Compagnie française des Indes struggled with for orientales. 

Robert Clive control in the hands of the British in Bengal, India ,, the main military and political power, leaving the company, in the French and Indian War II allies defeated Plassey. In the following decades, gradually increased the amount of native Indian sepoys, or made up 80% of the Indian army, under threat of power to the local puppet rulers through direct or indirect control, territories under its control.

The Voyages of the explorer James Cook

In August 1770, at 22, James Cook discovered the east coast of Australia in the South Pacific was a scientific trip. In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the go, repealed settlement deal with the government presented evidence Suited for space on the Bay, and in 1787 the first load of criminals arriving in 1788, set sail.

In 1921, the British Empire

The British government in 1789, the outbreak of the French Revolution was a somewhat mixed response, and the outbreak of war on the continent in 1792, so the first vote. But the following January, Lewis was beheaded in his book. It motivated me to declare Britain, France, the Netherlands, coupled with the threat of an invasion of this war. For the next 23 years the two nations in the war, except for a short period of 1802-1803. Among European nations, only Britain, France or never alliance with the offer. In the 1790s several centuries, the British defeated the lines between France and its allies, but were unable to land any of the events.

 One of the Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands in 1799 did little except a recording on Dutch ships.

In the 19th century, on the threshold, unlike previous wars, Britain, represented in a competition, ideological struggle between the two nations, under Napoleon was the question again in France, Great Britain, the constitutional monarchy liberal principles of the French Revolution vs. Napoleon's invasion threat to Britain itself, and it with a fate similar to his troops had invaded continental Europe countries, called on the world stage was a threat not only to the British position was championed by the Napoleonic empire.It.

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